The Reformers agreed that medieval sacramental theology needed reform but diverged on key points. Calvin and Luther defended infant baptism as a covenant sign against Anabaptist demands for believer's baptism, tracing its origin to the Abrahamic covenant and circumcision. Luther located baptism's efficacy in God's Word and promise attached to the water — rejecting ex opere operato automaticism while affirming the rite gives "forgiveness of sins, redemption from death and the Devil, and eternal salvation to all who believe." Calvin stressed God's sole agency — "God does the whole, and we only receive" — making baptism a seal of divine promises rather than a cause of inner renewal. Arminian theologians like Episcopius extended the covenant framework, viewing baptism as engrafting all covenant members including infants into God's worship, with salvation conditional on not rejecting the promise.
"It gives us the forgiveness of sins, redeems us from death and the Devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, just as God's words and promises declare" — Luther's catechetical statement tying baptism's efficacy entirely to the divine Word and promise, not the water's inherent power or the rite's automatic operation, while affirming it as a true means of salvation for believers.
"I call the act passive, because God does the whole, and we only receive" — Calvin's insistence that baptism's grace flows from God's sole agency through the sign and Word, distinguishing the Reformed position from Catholic ex opere operato theology while defending infant baptism as a covenant ordinance against the Anabaptists.
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